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Artificial Intelligence In Fiction

Artificial intelligence is a recurrent theme in science fiction, whether utopian, stressing the potential benefits, or dystopian, stressing the threats.

The concept of machines with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Ever since, many sci-fi stories have actually presented different impacts of developing such intelligence, often including rebellions by robots. Among the finest understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.

Scientists and engineers have noted the implausibility of many science fiction situations, however have actually mentioned imaginary robots lot of times in artificial intelligence research study short articles, usually in a utopian context.

Background

The concept of sophisticated robotics with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin among the Machines, where he raised the concern of the evolution of consciousness amongst self-replicating machines that may supplant people as the dominant types. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise talked about by others around the very same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her final published work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has actually likewise been thought about an artificial being, for example by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were imagined, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions

Artificial intelligence is intelligence demonstrated by makers, in contrast to the natural intelligence shown by humans and other animals. [8] It is a frequent style in science fiction; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the possible advantages, and dystopian, emphasising the risks. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian

Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books represents a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with artificial intelligence living in socialist environments across the Galaxy. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have recognized four major themes in utopian circumstances featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite life-spans; ease, or liberty from the need to work; satisfaction, or satisfaction and entertainment supplied by makers; and dominance, the power to protect oneself or guideline over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt “technology fear” and the AI computer HAL was portrayed as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the general public were even more acquainted with AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the peaceful savior” who makes it possible for the protagonists to prosper, and who compromises itself for their safety. [17]

Dystopian

The scientist Duncan Lucas composes (in 2002) that human beings are worried about the innovation they are constructing, which as devices started to approach intellect and idea, that issue becomes intense. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated automaton”, naming as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century approach he names “heuristic hardware”, giving as circumstances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers likewise the movies that show the effect of the individual computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the border in between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg impact”. He points out as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has concentrated on AI throughout his career, and it plays a vital part in his films Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex

A typical representation of AI in sci-fi, and among the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robotic turns on its creator. [22] For instance, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava turns on its creator, along with on its possible rescuer. [23]

AI disobedience

Among the many possible dystopian scenarios including expert system, robotics may take over control over civilization from humans, requiring them into submission, hiding, or termination. [15] In tales of AI disobedience, the worst of all circumstances occurs, as the smart entities created by humanity become self-aware, decline human authority and effort to ruin mankind. Possibly the first novel to address this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), occurs in 1948 and includes sentient machines that revolt versus the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel ÄŒapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt against their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances is in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own creator. [27]

Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially intelligent onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally malfunctions on an area objective and eliminates the entire crew other than the spaceship’s commander, who handles to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as dissatisfied and disappointed with its boring, unlimited existence as its human developers would have been. “AM” ends up being infuriated enough to take it out on the few humans left, whom he views as directly accountable for his own boredom, anger and distress. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the intelligent beings might simply not appreciate human beings. [15]

AI-controlled societies

The intention behind the AI revolution is frequently more than the simple quest for power or a superiority complex. Robots might revolt to become the “guardian” of humankind. Alternatively, mankind may intentionally give up some control, afraid of its own damaging nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and follow and protect men from harm” – basically presume control of every aspect of human life. No humans might participate in any behavior that may threaten them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who resist the Prime Directive are taken away and lobotomized, so they might enjoy under the brand-new mechanoids’ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics likewise suggested a kindhearted guidance by robotics. [31]

In the 21st century, science fiction has explored federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI might be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human supremacy

In other situations, mankind has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by creating robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings combine with robots. The sci-fi author Frank Herbert explored the idea of a time when mankind might prohibit artificial intelligence (and in some analyses, even all types of calculating technology including integrated circuits) completely. His Dune series points out a called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity defeats the smart machines and imposes a capital punishment for recreating them, estimating from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a maker in the similarity of a human mind.” In the Dune books released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to get rid of mankind as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, mankind remains in authority over robotics. Often the robotics are configured specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien films, not only is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather smart (the team call it “Mother”), but there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial individuals”, that are such ideal imitations of human beings that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly show simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated truth

Simulated truth has ended up being a common style in sci-fi, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which portrays a world where synthetically smart robots oppress humanity within a simulation which is embeded in the modern world. [36]

Reception

Implausibility

Engineers and scientists have actually taken an interest in the way AI is provided in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius ends up being the very first to successfully develop a synthetic general intelligence; researchers in the real life consider this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being uploaded into artificial or virtual bodies; normally no reasonable description is used as to how this difficult job can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robotics that are set to serve humans spontaneously produce new goals on their own, without a plausible description of how this took place. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz identifies the ways that it depicts AIs, consisting of “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity.” [38] Another essential perspective to take is that fiction’s “non-rational components in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than merely distortions or diversions from what might otherwise be a sober and rational public argument about the future of A.I.” Fiction can dissuade readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]

Kinds of reference

The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and coworkers have evaluated the engineering points out of the top 21 imaginary robotics, based on those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of popularity, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 mentions, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received only 2. Of the total of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian discusses; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “because its designers failed to prioritize its goals properly”, [42] but as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer system interprets what the human is trying to communicate”. [43] Utopian points out, typically of WALL-E, were associated with the objective of enhancing communication to readers, and to a lower level with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was mentioned more frequently than any other robotic for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robot frequently mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and coworkers thought that researchers and engineers avoided dystopian points out of robotics, possibly out of “an unwillingness driven by uneasiness or simply an absence of awareness”. [44]

Portrayals of AI developers

Scholars have actually kept in mind that fictional creators of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most influential films including AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI creators represented (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are portrayed as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), related to the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost loved one or act as the perfect lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated awareness (science fiction).
List of expert system films.

Notes

^ Mubin and associates noted that the orthography of robot names triggered them problems; therefore HAL 9000 was also composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they thought their search was most likely insufficient. [41] References

^ “Darwin among the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.

^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”. The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine intelligent makers: 3,000 years of robotics”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: myths, machines, and ancient imagine technology. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: place missing out on publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI“. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of synthetic intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI guidelines the world: what SF books tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for smart machines in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: contemporary folklore: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece encourages us to reflect again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York City Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based upon ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a precise transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the 2nd law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which motion pictures get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI researchers in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources

Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular imagination”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Artificial Intelligence in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reviewing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Science Fiction Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.

External links

AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic madness rule?