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Expert System Industry In China
The expert system industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and technology as the nation’s main productive force.
The initial phases of China’s AI development were slow and came across considerable difficulties due to lack of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged the majority of Western countries in regards to AI advancement. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had actually gotten higher education abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has steadily developed a national agenda for expert system advancement and emerged as one of the leading countries in synthetic intelligence research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to become a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business should lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s rapid AI development has actually considerably impacted Chinese society in lots of areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top markets that would be the most impacted by additional AI deployment.
The private sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in many elements as there are couple of present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to limit China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research and advancement of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and technology for China’s economic growth. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research and development did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was tough so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further supplying government funds for research study projects. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have become part of China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research projects has dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was also mentioned in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This occasion coincided with the Chinese government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a tactical innovation that has ended up being a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The document urged substantial investment in a number of strategic areas connected to AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and private sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is a vital element to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The same year experienced the emergence of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council stated the need for massive talent acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, in addition to public and personal financial investments. [14] A few of the stated motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI technique consist of the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial improvement, much better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of artificial intelligence expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research. With the emergence of large language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released China’s very first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the guidelines concerning deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services safety requirements, including specifications for data collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy discussion with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed issue over AI security threats, consisting of abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors developed with generative synthetic intelligence to provide phony news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a big language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]
As of 2024, numerous Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of major AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Government goals
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be critical to the future of international military and economic power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council aims for China to make basic contributions to fundamental AI theory and to solidify its place as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and economic improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to meld state planning and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market securities, creating uneven benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a leading research priority and ranks AI initially among “frontier industries” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector frequently supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167
Research and development
Chinese public AI funding mainly concentrated on innovative and applied research. [38] The federal government funding also supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is massively purchasing all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]
According to national guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and local industrial advancement and environment. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly focuses on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]
Interdisciplinary cooperations play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate partnership, public-private cooperations, and global cooperations and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are generally sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101
According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing responsibilities on AI companies, the general method to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population generates an enormous amount of accessible data for companies and researchers, which provides a crucial benefit in the race of big information. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest variety of web users, generating huge amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial recognition
Facial acknowledgment is one of the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its residents helps more train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not just conducive and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D but likewise offers incredible financial possible bring in both worldwide and domestic firms to join the AI market. The drastic development of the details and interaction innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and content controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft steps specifying that tech companies will be bound to guarantee AI-generated content promotes the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal responsibility for training information and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language model to the public, business must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the design declines to respond to specific concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]
In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries including training information sets commonly utilized for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers regional business with training data that CCP leaders think about acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has warned that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese artificial intelligence model DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to answer concerns connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic impact
Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-lasting financial growth. In the past, traditional industries in China have fought with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional expenses are expected to minimize while a boost in performance creates profits growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and lack of appropriately trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most negatively affected by China’s AI development because of increasing needs for laborers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in coastal areas instead of inland. [61]
A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98
Military effect
China looks for to build a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a particular focus on making use of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating different types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report released later on showed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a broadening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for exploiting large chests of intelligence, generating a common operating image, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, decision assistance, software, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]
China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist in between Chinese business companies, university research labs, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of guiding AI advancement top priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from industrial business and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of data identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily pertinent AI applications, potentially approving it legal access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model usage prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly given that China deals with difficulties in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the exact same proportion of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China especially wish to address military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the very first kids’s curriculum in military AI worldwide. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical concerns
For the previous years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user protection, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans shall remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI concepts requiring important needs in long-term research study and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]
Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and numerous nationwide federal governments have actually established legislation addressing data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to deal with brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative structure classifying all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are required to categorize their information into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other celebrations. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements related to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI evaluates the proof provided and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124
Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, writes that AI-technology companies may erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are intentional goals of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]
Leading business
Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]
China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually sought to encourage personal tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has also been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to worldwide AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take advantage of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
A post published by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and worldwide security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise prioritize cultivating knowledge and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale essential modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have exceptional resources and enormous untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be wise for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]
The Chinese federal government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI creates obstacles for holistic nationwide security, including the risks that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing impacts on worldwide relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of employees and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing higher capital build-up and political power in fewer financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the main responsible star in the area of generative AI (creating brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI dangers escalating military competition in between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover effects. [28]:91
Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential danger from expert system have actually occurred. [92]
Public ballot
The Chinese public is normally optimistic regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study carried out across 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI exceed the risks, the highest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% agreed or highly concurred that AI will do more excellent than harm for society, and 31% believed it should be regulated by the government. [93]
Human rights
The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to spot Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a government intentionally utilizing artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, particularly by local community authorities departments. [97] [98]
Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system business
Regulation of synthetic intelligence
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.